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Gestalt Therapy is a psychotherapy, based on the experiential ideal of "here and now", and relationships with others and the world, and was co-founded by Fritz Perls, Laura Perls and Paul Goodman in the 1940s-1950s. It is related to but not identical to Gestalt psychology and the Gestalt psychology based Gestalt Theoretical Psychotherapy of Hans-Juergen Walter.
Based initially on the insights of Gestalt Psychology and traditional Psychotherapy, Gestalt Therapy has developed as a psycho-therapeutic model, with a developed theory that combines phenomenological, existential, dialogical, and field approaches to the process of transformation and growth, of human beings.
At the centre of Gestalt Therapy lies the promotion of "awareness". The patient is encouraged to become aware of their own feelings and behaviours, and the patient's effect upon their environment. The way in which a patient interupts or seeks to avoid contact with their environment is considered to be a substantive factor when recovering from psychological disturbances. By focusing on the patient's awareness of themselves as part of reality, new insights can be made into the patient's behaviour, and the patient can engage in self-healing
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Cognitive distortions are logical, but they are not rational. They can create real difficulty with your thinking. See if you are doing any of the ten common distortions that people use. Rate yourself from one to ten with one being low and ten being high. Ask yourself if you can stop using the distortions and think in a different way.
Cognitive therapy and its variants traditionally identify ten cognitive distortions that maintain negative thinking which they assert help maintain negative emotions. Eliminating these distortions and negative thought is said to improve mood and discourage maladies such as depression and chronic anxiety. The process of learning to refute these distortions is called "cognitive restructuring".
Related links are suggested in parentheses.
Cognitive therapy and its variants traditionally identify ten cognitive distortions that maintain negative thinking which they assert help maintain negative emotions. Eliminating these distortions and negative thought is said to improve mood and discourage maladies such as depression and chronic anxiety. The process of learning to refute these distortions is called "cognitive restructuring".
Related links are suggested in parentheses.
Irrationality is talking or acting without regard of rationality. Usually pejorative, the term is used to describe emotion-driven thinking and actions which are, or appear to be, less useful than the rational alternatives. There is a clear tendency to view our own thoughts, words, and actions as rational and to see those who disagree as irrational.
Types of behavior which are often described as irrational include:
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The study of irrational behavior is of interest in fields such as psychology, cognitive science, economics and game theory, as well as of practical interest to the practitioners of advertising and propaganda.
Theories of irrational behavior include:
A mental illness is a psychiatric disorder that results in a disruption in a person's thinking, feeling, moods, and ability to relate to others. Mental illness is distinct from the legal concept of insanity.
Mental health, mental hygiene and mental wellness are all terms used to describe the absence of mental illness.
Psychiatrists generally attribute mental illness to organic/neurochemical causes that can be treated with psychiatric medication, psychotherapy, lifestyle adjustments and other supportive measures.
Advocacy organizations have been trying to change the common perception of psychiatric disorders as a sign of personal weakness and something to be ashamed of to an affliction akin to physical diseases (like the measles).
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According to the President's New Freedom Commission on Mental Health, major mental illness, including clinical depression, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, and obsessive-compulsive disorder, when compared with all other diseases (such as cancer and heart disease), is the most common cause of disability in the United States. According to NAMI (the National Alliance for the Mentally Ill (http://www.nami.org)) an American advocacy organisation, twenty-three percent of North American adults will suffer from a clinically diagnosable mental illness in a given year, but less than half of them will suffer symptoms severe enough to disrupt their daily functioning. Approximately nine percent to 13 percent of children under the age of 18 experience a serious emotional disturbance with substantial functional impairment, and five percent to nine percent have a serious emotional disturbance with extreme functional impairment due to a mental illness. Many of these young people will recover from their illnesses before reaching adulthood, and go on to lead normal lives uncomplicated by illness.
The treatment success rate for a first episode of schizophrenia is 60 percent, 65 percent to 70 percent for major depression, and 80 percent for bipolar disorder.
At the start of the 20th century there were only a dozen recognized mental illnesses. By 1952 there were 192 and the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorder, Fourth Edition (DSM-IV) today lists 374. Depending on your perspective this could be seen to be:
The subject is profoundly controversial, e.g. homosexuality was once considered such an "illness" (see DSM-II), and this perception varies with cultural bias and theory of conduct.
It is important to note that the existence of mental illness and the legitimacy of the psychiatric profession are not universally accepted. Some professionals, notably Doctor Thomas Szasz, Professor Emeritus of Psychiatry at Syracuse, are profoundly opposed to the practice of labelling "mental illness" as such. "There is no such thing as mental illness" is not an uncommon statement at gatherings of therapists emphasizing patient care and self-control, often decrying labels as suitable only for pill salesmen. This movement, known as anti-psychiatry argues against a biological origin for mental disorders, or else suggests that all human experience has a biological origin and so no pattern of behavior can be classified as an illness per se.
Neurochemical studies have proven that there are systemic lacks of certain neurotransmitters in the brains of certain individuals. Also, some structural differences between brains of people with behavioral differences can be detected in brain scans. Some mental illnesses tend to run in families, and there have also been strongly suggestive, but not conclusive, links between certain genes and particular mental disorders. Routine tests for these conditions are, however, not generally required for prescription of drugs, and are not always employed in law either. It is not clear whether these differences in brain chemistry are the cause or the result of mental disorders. Anti-psychiatrists argue that traumatic life experiences that exceed an individual's coping ability can result in lasting changes in brain chemistry. Patterns of learned behavior can also alter brain chemistry, for better or for worse. Cognitive behavior therapy focuses on changing patterns of thinking through learning, which may ultimately restore so-termed "healthy" brain chemistry.
Drug therapies for severe mental illnesses such as bipolar disorder and clinical depression which are consistent with biochemical models have been remarkably effective, and there are reports of increasively effective treatments for schizophrenia. Anti-psychiatrists, however, argue that drugs merely mask the symptoms of mental suffering by physically crippling the brain's emotional response system. Studies have shown that many patient's symptoms return once drug treatment is ceased.
See the articles on anti-psychiatry and causes of mental illness for a fuller treatment of these topics.
In the United States, mental illnesses have been categorised into groups according to their common symptoms, in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders compiled by the American Psychiatric Association. There are thirteen different categories. Some categories contain a myriad of illnesses and some with only a few:
In addition to the categorized illnesses, there are many well-defined symptoms of mental illness such as paranoia that are not regarded as illnesses in themselves, but only as indicators of one of the illnesses belonging to one of the classes listed above.
In philosophy, the word rationality has been used to describe numerous religious and philosophical theories, especially those concerned with truth, reason, and knowledge. Rationality of various kinds has often been taken to be one of the key features of the mind and/or soul that separates humans from animals. Continental rationalism is a school in which rationality and reason are the key methods by which we obtain knowledge, in opposition to empiricism which states that knowledge is obtained primarily via the senses.
A logical argument is sometimes described as rational if it is logically valid. However, rationality is a much broader term than logic, as it includes "uncertain but sensible" arguments based on probability, expectation, personal experience and the like, whereas logic deals principally with provable facts and demonstrably valid relations between them. For example, ad hominem arguments are logically unsound, but in many cases they may be rational.
In economics, sociology, and political science, a decision or situation is often called rational if it is in some sense optimal, and individuals or organizations are often called rational if they tend to act somehow optimally in pursuit of their goals. Thus one speaks, for example, of a rational allocation of resources, or of a rational corporate strategy. In this concept of "rationality", the individuals goals or motives are taken for granted and not made subject to criticism, ethical or otherwise. Thus rationality simply to refers to the success of goal attainment, whatever those goals may be. Sometimes, in this context, rationality is equated with behavior that is self-interested to the point of being selfish. Sometimes rationality implies having complete knowledge about all the details of a given situation. See Rational choice theory.
Debates arise in these three fields about whether or not people or organizations are "really" rational, as well as whether it make sense to model them as such in formal models. Some have argued that a kind of bounded rationality makes more sense for such models. Others think that any kind of rationality along the lines of rational choice theory is a useless concept for understanding human behavior; the term homo economicus is largely in honor of this view.
Rationality is a central principle in Artificial Intelligence, where an rational agent is specifically defined as an agent which always chooses the action which maximises its expected performance, given all of the knowledge it currently possesses.
In a number of kinds of speech, "rational" may also denote a hodge-podge of generally positive attributes, including:
Useful contrasts may include:
The pathetic fallacy is the logical fallacy of treating inanimate objects or conceptual entities such as countries as if they have thoughts or feelings.
(Compare to reification.)
For example:
John Ruskin coined this phrase in his work "Modern Painters".
One particularly common appearance of the fallacy is when dealing with evolution.
Specifically, members of an evolving species do not "want" to develop a
certain
trait (or if they do it is of no evolutionary relevance). Nor can
evolution
"dislike" a particular subset of the population, though it may be the
case
that a subset is less likely to breed and hence disadvantaged.
The fallacy is sometimes used in literature. For example, in a drama or novel, the weather might seem to be in tune with the characters' feelings. Other literary uses for pathetic fallacy would be having a certain character exclaim a fact or opinion which coincides in some way to that character, yet they are unaware of it.
Behavioral finance as well as Behavioral economics applies scientific research on human and social cognitive and emotional biases (see cognitive bias) to better understand economic decisions and how they affect market prices, returns and the allocation of resources.
It analyses mostly the effects of market decisions, but also those of public choice, another source of economic decisions with some similar biases.
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Notable theorists include Daniel Kahneman, Ron Dembo and Richard Thaler. Key observations made in behavioral finance include the lack of symmetry between decisions to acquire or keep resources, called colloquially the "bird in the bush" paradox, and the strong loss aversion or regret attached to any decision where some emotionally valued resources (e.g. a home) might be totally lost.
Shefrin (2002) identifies three main themes of behavioral finance:
In other social sciences, the more general problems of heuristic cognitive bias, "herding" confirmation bias, and tolerances versus preferences frame issues, are well known. So behavioral finance / behavioral economics in some ways simply observes the same dynamics in play in economics. Law and economics is another field where the lessons of one discipline are brought into economics.
A very specific version of behavioral finance, prospect theory, was first advanced by Amos Tversky and Kahneman in 1979. This sought to define economics as a subfield of cognitive science, an effort which was not entirely successful, but which attracted significant attention to the field. Applying a version of prospect theory, Benartzi and Thaler (1995) claim to have solved the equity premium puzzle, something conventional economic models have been unable to do.
However, critics of the field, who support the Efficient market theory (such as Eugene Fama), contend that it is more a collection of anomalies rather than a true branch of finance and that these anomalies will eventually be priced out of the market or explained by appeal to market microstructure arguments.
Here, a distinction has to be made between individual biases and social biases, the former can be averaged out by the market, while the other can create feedback loops that drive the market further and further from the équilibrium of the "fair price"
Some financial models used in money management and asset valuation use behavioral finance parameters, for example
The methodology of behavioral economics / behavioral finances includes observations, games where participants engage in simulations of economic behaviour, such as investing, auctions, etc. In recent years, some research was done using fMRI to determine which areas of the brain are active during various steps of economic decision making.
It is common to feel sad, discouraged, or "down" once in a while, and anyone in this state might say they are suffering from depression (depressed mood). But for some people, this mood persists. For depression, or any other condition, to be termed "clinical" it must reach criteria which are generally accepted by clinicians. When symptoms last two weeks or more, and are so severe that they interfere with daily living, one can be said to be suffering from clinical depression. Using DSM-IV-TR terminology, someone with a major depressive disorder can, by definition, be said to be suffering from clinical depression.
Clinical depression affects about 16%,1 of the population at one time or another in their lives. The mean age of onset from a number of studies is in the late 20s. About twice as many women as men report or receive treatment for clinical depression, though the gap is shrinking and this difference disappears after the menopause.
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According to the DSM-IV-TR criteria for diagnosing a major depressive disorder (http://www.behavenet.com/capsules/disorders/mjrdepd.htm) one or both of the following two required elements need to be present:
It is sufficient to have either of these symptoms in conjunction with four of a list of other symptoms, these include:
The diagnosis does not require "loss of interest in life, anhedonia". Likewise, "lack of energy and motivation" is not at all a required symptom of a major depressive episode.
Improper drug or alcohol use is not a diagnostic symptom, but often accompanies and may be a causal factor in major depression.
Andrew Solomon in his book The Noonday Demon (p.20) states that the DSM IV list of symptoms is, "entirely arbitrary [and] having slight versions of all the symptoms may be less of a problem than having severe versions of two symptoms".
Depression in children is not as obvious as it is in adults; symptoms children demonstrate include
In older children and adolescents, an additional indicator may be the use of drugs or alcohol. Moreover, depressed adolescents are at risk for further destructive behaviours, such as eating disorders and self-mutilation.
It is hard for people who have not experienced clinical depression, either personally or by regular exposure to people suffering it, to understand its emotional impact and severity, interpreting it instead as being similar to "having the blues" or "feeling down". As the list of symptoms above indicates, clinical depression is a syndrome of interlocking symptoms which goes far beyond sad or painful feelings. A variety of biological indicators, including measurement of neurotransmitter levels, have shown that there are significant changes in brain chemistry and an overall reduction in brain activity. One consequence of a lack of understanding of its nature is that depressed individuals are often criticized by themselves and others for not making an effort to help themselves. However, the very nature of depression alters the way people think and react to situations to the point where they may become so pessimistic that they can do little or nothing about their condition. Because of this profound and often overwhelmingly negative outlook, it is imperative that the depressed individual seek professional help. Untreated depression is typically characterized by progressively worsening episodes separated by plateaus of temporary stability or remission. If left untreated it will generally resolve within six months to two years although occasionally depression becomes chronic and lasts for many years or indefinitely. Treatment can shorten the period of distress to a matter of weeks. While depressed, the person may damage themselves socially (e.g. the break up of relationships), occupationally (e.g. loss of a job), financially and physically. Treatment of depression can significantly reduce the incidence of this damage, including reducing the risk of suicide which is otherwise a common and tragic outcome. For all of these reasons, treatment of clinical depression is seen by many as very useful and at times life saving.
The modern idea of depression seems to be the same as the much older concept of melancholia. The name melancholia derives from 'black bile', one of the 'four humours' postulated by Hippocrates.
Major depression is also referred to as major depressive disorder or biochemical, clinical, endogenous, unipolar, or biological depression. It is characterized by a severely depressed mood that persists for at least two weeks. Episodes of depression may start suddenly or slowly and can occur several times through a person's life.
Clinicians recognise several subtypes of major depression.
Major depression may also be referred to as unipolar affective disorder, a term which emphasizes its relatedness to bipolar disorder.
No specific cause for depression has been identified, but there are a number of factors believed to be involved.
Treatment of depression varies broadly, and is different for each individual. Various types and combinations of treatments may have to be tried. There are two primary modes of treatment, typically employed in conjunction with one another, medication and psychotherapy. A third treatment, electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) may be used where chemical treatment fails. Other alternative treatments used for depression include exercise, and the use of vitamins, herbs, or other nutritional supplements.
The effectiveness of treatment often depends on factors such as the amount of optimism and hope the sufferer is able to maintain, the control s/he has over stressors, the severity of symptoms, the amount of time the sufferer has been depressed, the results of previous treatments, and the degree of support of family, friends, and significant others.
While treatment is generally effective there are some cases of where the condition fails to respond. Treatment resistant depression requires a full assessment which may lead to the addition of psychotherapy, higher medication doses, changes of medication or combination therapy, a trial of ECT or even a change in the diagnosis with subsequent treatment changes. Although this process helps many, some people continue with their symptoms unabated.
Medication which effectively ameliorates the symptoms of depression has been available for several decades.
Tricyclic antidepressants are the oldest, and include such medications as amitriptyline and desipramine. They are used less commonly now, due to side-effects which may include increased heart rate, drowsiness, and memory impairment.
Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) may be used if other antidepressant medications are ineffective. Because there are undesirable interactions between this class of medication and certain foods and drugs, it is important that the user be aware of which ones to avoid. A new MAOI has recently been introduced. Moclobemide (Manerix), known as a reversible inhibitor of monoamine oxidase A (RIMA), follows a very specific chemical pathway and does not require a special diet.
Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) comprise the current standard family of antidepressants. It is thought that one cause of depression is that an inadequate amount of serotonin, a chemical which the brain uses to transmit signals between nerve cells, is produced. These drugs work by preventing the reabsorption of serotonin by the nerve cell, thus maintaining the levels the brain needs to function effectively. This family of drugs includes fluoxetine (Prozac), paroxetine (Paxil), sertraline (Zoloft) and nefazodone (Serzone). These antidepressants typically have fewer adverse side effects than the tricyclics or the MAOIs, though such effects as drowsiness, dry mouth, and decreased ability to function sexually may occur.
Selective norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs) such as venlafaxine (Effexor) and reboxetine (Edronax) are a newer form of anti-depressant which work by maintaining the level of noradrenaline in the brain at a constant level as well as acting upon serotonin. They typically have fewer side-effects than other types of anti-depressant although there may be a withdrawal syndrome on discontinuation which may require a tapering of the dose. SNRIs are thought to have a positive effect on concentration and motivation in particular.
Some antidepressants have been found to work more effectively in some patients when used in combination with another drug. Such "augmentor" drugs include tryptophan (Tryptan) and buspirone (Buspar).
Tranquillizers and sedatives, typically the benzodiazepines, may be prescribed to ease anxiety and promote sleep. Because of their high potential for addiction, these medications are intended only for short-term or occasional use. Medications are often employed not for their primary function, but to exploit what are normally side effects. Quetiapine fumarate (Seroquel) is designed primarily to treat schizophrenia and bipolar disorder, but a frequently-reported side-effect is somnolence. Hence, this non-addictive drug can be used in place of an addictive anti-anxiety agent such as clonazepam (Klonopin, Rivotril).
Antipsychotics such as risperidone (Risperdal) and olanzapine (Zyprexa) are prescribed as mood stabilizers and are also effective in treating anxiety. However, they may have serious side effects, particularly at high doses, which may include blurred vision, muscle spasms, restlessness, tardive dyskinesia, and weight gain.
Lithium remains the standard treatment for bipolar disorder, but may also be effective for people with depression, particularly in preventing relapse. Lithium's potential side effects include thirst, tremors, light-headedness, and nausea or diarrhea. Some of the anticonvulsants such as carbamazepine (Tegretol) and sodium valproate (Epilim) are also used as mood stabilisers, particularly in bipolar disorder.
Failure to take medication, or failure to take it as prescribed, is one of the major causes of relapse. Should one feel a change or discontinuation of medication is necessary, it is critical that this be done in consultation with a doctor.
In psychotherapy, or counselling, one receives assistance in understanding and resolving problems which may be contributing to depression. This may be done individually or with a group, and is conducted by health professionals such as psychiatrists, psychologists, social workers, or psychiatric nurses. It is important to enquire about both the therapist's training and approach; a very close bond often forms between practitioner and client, and it is important that the client feel understood by the clinician.
Counsellors can help a person make changes in thinking patterns, deal with relationship issues, detect and deal with relapses, and understand the factors that contribute to depression.
There are many therapeutic approaches, but all are aimed at improving an individual's personal and interpersonal functioning. Cognitive therapy focuses on how people think about themselves and their relationship to the world. It works to counteract negative thought patterns and enhance self-esteem. Therapy can be used to help a person develop or improve interpersonal skills in order to allow them to communicate more effectively and reduce stress. Behavioral therapy is based on the assumption that behaviors are learned. This type of therapy attempts to teach individuals new and healthier types of behaviors. Supportive therapy encourages people to discuss their problems and provides them with emotional support. The focus is on sharing information, ideas, and strategies for coping with daily life. Family systems therapy helps people live together more harmoniously and undo patterns of destructive behavior.
Electroconvulsive therapy, also known as electroshock therapy, shock therapy, or ECT employs short bursts of a carefully controlled current of electricity (this is fixed at 0.9 amp in one typical machine) to induce an artificial epileptic seizure while the patient is under general anesthesia. This therapy may be employed where other means of treatment have failed, or where the use of drugs is unacceptable, such as in pregnancy. In a typical regimen of treatment, a patient receives three treatments per week over three or four weeks. Repeat sessions may be required. Short-term memory loss or headache may result from this treatment.
Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) is currently under study as a possible treatment for depression. Initially designed as a tool for physiological studies of the brain, this technique shows promise as a means of alleviating depression. In this therapy, a powerful magnetic field is used to stimulate the left prefrontal cortex, an area of the brain which typically shows abnormal activity in depressed individuals. Studies currently show an efficacy similar to that of ECT, but with fewer side effects. No sedation is required, and the only reported side effects are a slight headache in some patients, and facial muscle contraction during treatment.
Relapse is more likely if treatment has not resulted in the full remission of symptoms.2
Books by psychologists/psychiatrists:
Books by persons suffering or having suffered from depression:
Self-help (bibliotherapeutic) Books:
A psychologist is a practitioner of psychology.
See also: list of psychologists
There are 112 articles in this category.
Carl Ransom Rogers (January 8, 1902 - February 4, 1987) was a psychologist who was instrumental in the development of non-directive psychotherapy (Rogerian psychotherapy). His basic tenets were unconditional love, a positive client-counselor relationship, and that the client could solve their own problems by talking about them with someone else.
Born in Oak Park, Illinois. His father was an engineer, his mother a housewife and devoted Christian. Following an education in an strict, religious and ethical environment, he became a rather isolated, independent and disciplined person, and acquired a knowledge and an appreciation for the scientific method in a practical world. His first career choice was agriculture, followed by religion. At age 20, following his 1922 trip to Beijing for an international Christian conference, he started to doubt his religious convictions; to help him clarify his career choice, he attended to a seminar entitled 'Why am I entering the ministry?', after which he decided to change career.
He signed-up to the psychology program in Chicago, and obtained his Ph.D. in 1931. He taught and practiced at Ohio State (1940), the University of Chicago (1945) and the University of Wisconsin (1957). However, following several internal conflicts at the department of psychology of Wisconsin, Rogers became disillusioned with academia. He received an offer at La Jolla for research, where he remained, doing therapy, speeches and writing until his sudden death.
Rogers also made a significant impact upon Education Psychology, a field in which his views are generally regarded as Humanist. He also developed a theory of experiential learning, which he contrasted to what he called "cognitive learning."
Rogers' idea of the 'fully functioning person' involved the following qualities, which show marked similarities to Buddhist thinking.
Computer scientist Joseph Weizenbaum's famous 1966 computer program, Eliza, produced what was (and still is) a startlingly effective illusion of discourse with a human, primarily by using simple syntactical transformation rules to transform the user's statements into questions and responding with these questions. Weizenbaum described Eliza as providing a "parody" of "the responses of a nondirective Rogerian psychotherapist in an initial psychiatric interview.
Rogers and some colleagues are also the founders of "Group Encounter" (for young people, managers etc.) and of Marriage Encounter (ME).
See also: Person Centred Counselling, Buddhism, Christianity, Communication
Experiential education is the process of actively engaging students in an experience that will have real consequences. Students make discoveries and experiment with knowledge themselves instead of hearing or reading about the experiences of others. Students also reflect on their experiences, thus developing new skills, new attitudes, and new theories or ways of thinking (Kraft & Sakofs, 1988).
John Dewey (1938) was an early promoter of the idea of learning through direct experience, by action and reflection. This type of learning differs from much traditional education in that teachers first immerse students in action and then ask them to reflect on the experience. In traditional classrooms, teachers begin by setting knowledge (including analysis and synthesis) before students. They hope students will later find ways to apply the knowledge in action. Despite the efforts of many would-be reformers, recent reports by researchers such as Goodlad (1984) and Sizer (1984) suggest that most teaching, particularly at the high school level, still involves the teacher as purveyor of knowledge and the student as passive recipient of it.
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Examples of experiential education abound in all disciplines. In her book, "Living Between the Lines" (1991), Lucy Calkins states, "If we asked our students for the highlight of their school careers, most would choose a time when they dedicated themselves to an endeavor of great importance...I am thinking of youngsters from P.S. 321, who have launched a save-the-tree campaign to prevent the oaks outside their school from being cut down. I am thinking of children who write the school newspaper, act in the school play, organize the playground building committee.... On projects such as these, youngsters will work before school, after school, during lunch. Our youngsters want to work hard on endeavors they deem significant."
There are other examples. High school English classes in Rabun Gap, Georgia have published the Foxfire books and magazines for over 25 years (Wigginton, 1985). Students research the culture of the Appalachian mountains through taped interviews and then write and edit articles based upon their interviews. Foxfire has inspired hundreds of similar cultural journalism projects around the country. One widely adopted form of experiential education is learning through service to others (Kielsmeier & Willits, 1989). An example is Project OASES (Occupational and Academic Skills for the Employment of Students) in the Pittsburgh public schools. Eighth graders, identified as potential dropouts, spend three periods a day involved in renovating a homeless shelter as part of a service project carried out within their industrial arts class. Students in programs such as these learn enduring skills such as planning, communicating with a variety of age groups and types of people, and group decisionmaking. In carrying out their activities and in the reflection component afterward, they come to new insights and integrate diverse knowledge from fields such as English, political science, mathematics, and sociology.
Friends World Program, a four-year international study program operating out of Long Island University, operates entirely around self-guided, experiential learning while immersed in foreign cultures. Regional centers employ mostly advisors rather than teaching faculty; these advisors guide the individual students in preparing a "portfolio of learning" each semester to display the results of their experiences and projects.
Whether teachers employ experiential education in cultural journalism, service learning, environmental education, or more traditional school subjects, its key idea involves students taking on new active roles. Students participate in a real activity with real consequences.
Besides changing student roles, experiential education requires a change in the role of teachers. When students are active learners, their endeavors often take them outside the classroom walls. Because action precedes attempts to synthesize knowledge, teachers generally cannot plan a curriculum unit as a neat, predictable package. Teachers become active learners, too, experimenting together with their students, reflecting upon the learning activities they have designed, and responding to their students' reactions to the activities. In this way, teachers themselves become more active; they come to view themselves as more than just recipients of school district policy and curriculum decisions.
As students and teachers take on new roles, the traditional organizational structures of the school also may meet challenges. For example, at the Challenger Middle School in Colorado Springs, Colorado, service activities are an integral part of the academic program. Such nontraditional activities require teachers and administrators to look at traditional practices in new ways. For instance, they may consider reorganizing time blocks. They may also teach research methods by involving students in investigations of the community, rather than restricting research activities to the library (Rolzinski, 1990). At the University Heights Alternative School in the Bronx, the Project Adventure experiential learning program has led the faculty to adopt an all-day time block as an alternative to the traditional 45-minute periods. The faculty now organizes the curriculum by project instead of by separate disciplines.
At first, these new roles and structures may seem unfamiliar and uncomfortable to both students and adults in the school. Traditionally, students have most often been rewarded for competing rather than cooperating with one another. Teachers are not often called upon for collaborative work either. Teaching has traditionally been an activity carried out in isolation from one's peers, behind closed doors. Principals, used to the traditional hierarchical structure of schools, often do not know how to help their teachers constitute self-managed work teams or how to help teachers coach students to work in cooperative teams. The techniques of experiential education can help students and staff adjust to teamwork, an important part of the process of reforming schools.
Adventure is one form of experiential education that is highly effective in developing team and group skills in both students and adults (Rohnke, 1989). Initially, groups work to solve problems that are unrelated to the problems in their actual school environment. For example, in an adventure course designed to build the skills required by teamwork, a faculty or student team might work together to get the entire group over a 12-foot wall or through an intricate web of rope. After each challenge in a series of this kind, the group looks at how it functioned as a team. Who took the leadership roles? Did the planning process help or hinder progress? Did people listen to one another in the group and use the strengths of all group members? Did everyone feel that the group was a supportive environment in which they felt comfortable making a contribution and taking risks?
The wall or web of rope becomes a metaphor for the classroom or school environment. While the problems and challenges of the classroom or school are different from the physical challenges of the adventure activity, many skills needed to respond successfully as a team are the same in both settings.
These skills--listening, recognizing each other's strengths, and supporting each other through difficulties--can apply equally well to academic problem-solving or to schoolwide improvement efforts. For example, the Kane School in Lawrence, Massachusetts, has been using adventure as a tool for school restructuring. The entire faculty--particularly the Faculty Advisory Council, which shares the decisionmaking responsibilities with the principal--has honed group skills through experiential education activities developed by Project Adventure. These skills include open communication, methods of conflict resolution, and mechanisms for decisionmaking (High Strides, 1990).
Experiential education can change schools because it requires new roles of students, teachers, and administrators. It can provide a different, more engaging way of treating academic content through the combination of action and reflection. Experiental Education empowers students to take responsibility for their own learning. Experiential education can also provide a process for helping all those involved in schooling become more comfortable with the unfamiliar roles commonly proposed for restructured schools.
Reification, also called hypostatisation, is treating an abstract concept as if it were a real, concrete thing. The term is often used pejoratively by epistemological realists as a criticism of epistemological idealists. Epistemological realists often regard reification as a logical fallacy.
Fallacious arguments based on reification may be committed when manipulations that are only possible on concrete things are said to be performable on an abstract concept. A fallacy is also said to be committed when an abstract concept is referred to as if it bore no relation to the concrete things of which it is an abstraction. Examples of fallacious statements arising from reification are:
See also: pathetic fallacy.