The Sopranos is a popular HBO drama created by David Chase. Over the past 5 years the drama series has become a cultural phenomenon, gaining popularity and unparalled critical acclaim for its groundbreaking approach to family and the mob, as well as for pushing the envelope of violence and strong language on television.

The series begins with Tony collapsing with an anxiety attack, which prompts him to begin therapy with Dr. Jennifer Melfi. Gradually, we learn that Tony's mother is manipulative and possibly psychotic, someone in his organization is talking to the FBI, his children have troubled futures and his own superiors are plotting his death.

The Sopranos uses the mafia culture as an exaggerated version of the American nuclear family, to explore issues of class, sexuality, criminality, gender, family dynamics and generational conflict. The show has been criticized by some on the basis that it supposedly reinforces negative Italian American stereotypes about criminals and the Mafia. This same issue, however, has actually been adressed on the show several times, notably in the 1st season episode "The Legend Of Tennessee Moltisanti".

The series premiered on HBO on January 10, 1999. As of 2004 four seasons of 13 episodes each have been completed, with a fifth season currently being broadcast and an abbreviated sixth and final season planned for next year.

The following is a partial listing of characters from the HBO series, The Sopranos:

Carmela tries to maintain the Soprano household while Tony is out working. At times, she seems like the typical wife of the mob boss: supportive and friendly, even strong at times, never asking about the details of her husband's work. However, the years of having a husband missing at all hours, coupled with his constant infidelity have put a serious strain on their relationship. By the end of the fourth season, the two were separated, although Tony was continuing to provide for her and the kids. Carmela is also a staunch Roman Catholic and has difficulty rationalizing both her husband's profession and her subsequent separation (although her priest all but recommended the separation in the first place).

Carmela has a good, but distant relationship with her daughter, Meadow, who is now off at college, but she struggles with raising their son, A.J., who is a rebellious and uncontrollable teenager. Carmela also fights with Tony about A.J. because Tony often spoils his son to make up for his lack of being around regularly.

During the fourth season, Carmela had a mutual romantic infatuation with Furio Giunta, one of Tony's men. Carmela had reached a low point with Tony's constant string of affairs and the two had a romantically-tense but "arms-length" relationship. The two both confided to separate friends that they were falling for each other but Furio, fearing for his life for loving the boss's wife, sold his house and moved back to Italy.

Throughout the series, Tony Soprano has to juggle the ongoing needs of both his personal family and his professional family. He has a strained relationship with his wife, Carmela (whom, by the end of the fourth season, he is estranged from) and has a very distant relationship with his two children, Meadow and Anthony, Jr.

Coupled with this, Tony has to juggle New Jersey's most powerful criminal organization, keeping it functioning properly and keeping dissonance to a minimum. Tony is technically only the acting boss of the DiMeo family, keeping it operating while his uncle Junior Soprano is under investigation by the FBI. The relationship between Tony and Junior was very close for many years, with Junior acting as a father figure for Tony following the death of Giovanni (AKA Johnny Boy) Soprano, Tony's father. However, the relationship was strained when a disgruntled Junior, becoming more and more marginalized in the organization as the investigation into his activies increased by the FBI, conspired with Tony's own mother, Livia Soprano, to have him killed (although the hit failed).

Tony also suffers from panic attacks, a condition that both his father and now son also suffer from. To deal with it, he takes medication and sees a psychiatrist, Dr. Melfi. The relationship between Tony and Dr. Melfi has been up-and-down, with Tony reaching a level of comfort with Dr. Melfi that he has never experienced with anyone else before, not even his wife. This closeness leads Tony to have something of a "crush" on Dr. Melfi, something that is unattainable (as Dr. Melfi tries hard to suppress her feelings for him). However, the "prying" from Dr. Melfi is uncomfortable for Tony and he often turns sarcastic and antagonistic towards her, leading to an ongoing strain in their relationship.

Most people report a fear of dying, "going crazy", or losing control of emotions or behavior. The experiences generally provoke a strong urge to escape or flee the place where the attack begins and, when associated with chest pain or shortness of breath, frequently results in seeking aid from a hospital emergency room or other type of urgent assistance.

The panic attack is distinguished from other forms of anxiety by its intensity and its sudden, episodic nature. Panic attacks are not always indicative of a mental disorder, and up to 10 percent of otherwise healthy people experience an isolated panic attack per year (Barlow, 1988; Klerman et al., 1991).

Panic attacks are often experienced by sufferers of anxiety disorders, agoraphobia and other psychological conditions involving anxiety.

A phobic will often experience a panic attack as a direct result of exposure to their trigger. These panic attacks are usually short-lived and rapidly relieved once the trigger is escaped. In conditions of chronic anxiety one panic attack can often roll into another one, leading to nervous exhaustion over a period of days.

What are the symptoms of a panic attack?

As described above, the symptoms of a panic attack appear suddenly, without any apparent cause. They may include

A panic attack typically lasts for several minutes and is one of the most distressing conditions that a person can experience. Most who have one attack will have others. When someone has repeated attacks, or feels severe anxiety about having another attack, he or she is said to have panic disorder.

What is panic disorder?

Panic disorder is a serious health problem in the United States. At least 1.6 percent of adult Americans, or 3 million people, will have panic disorder at some time in their lives. The disorder is strikingly different from other types of anxiety in that panic attacks are so sudden, appear to be unprovoked, and are often disabling.

Once someone has had a panic attack--for example while driving, shopping in a crowded store, or riding in an elevator--he or she may develop irrational fears, called phobias, about these situations and begin to avoid them. Eventually, the pattern of avoidance and level of anxiety about another attack may reach the point where the individual with panic disorder may be unable to drive or even step out of the house. At this stage, the person is said to have panic disorder with agoraphobia. Thus panic disorder can have as serious an impact on a person's daily life as other major illnesses--unless the individual receives effective treatment.

Is panic disorder serious?

Yes, panic disorder is real and potentially disabling, but it can be controlled with specific treatments. Because of the disturbing symptoms that accompany panic disorder, it may be mistaken for heart disease or some other life-threatening medical illness. People frequently go to hospital emergency rooms when they are having a panic attack, and extensive medical tests may be performed to rule out these other conditions.

Others often try to reassure the person who is having a panic attack that he or she is not in great danger. Expressions such as "nothing serious," "all in your head," or "nothing to worry about" may give the incorrect impression that there is no real problem and that treatment is not possible or necessary.

What is the treatment for panic disorder?

Thanks to research, there are a variety of treatments available, including several effective medications, and also specific forms of psychotherapy. Often, a combination of psychotherapy and medications produces good results. Some improvement may be noticed in a fairly short period of time--about 6 to 8 weeks. Thus appropriate treatment of panic disorder can prevent panic attacks or at least substantially reduce their severity and frequency--bringing significant relief to 70 to 90 percent of people with panic disorder.

In addition, people with panic disorder may need treatment for other emotional problems. Depression has often been associated with panic disorder, as have alcohol and drug abuse. Recent research also suggests that suicide attempts are more frequent in people with panic disorder. Fortunately, these problems associated with panic disorder can be overcome effectively, just like panic disorder itself.

Tragically, many people with panic disorder do not seek or receive treatment. To encourage recognition and treatment of panic disorder, the U.S. National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) is sponsoring a major information campaign to acquaint the public and health care professionals with this disorder. NIMH is the agency of the U.S. government responsible for improving the mental health of the American people by supporting research on the brain and mental disorders and by increasing public understanding of these conditions and their treatment.

What happens if panic disorder is not treated?

Panic disorder tends to continue for months or years. It typically begins in young adulthood, but the symptoms may arise earlier or later in life. If left untreated, it may worsen to the point where the person's life is seriously affected by panic attacks and by attempts to avoid or conceal them. In fact, many people have had problems with friends and family or lost jobs while struggling to cope with panic disorder. It does not usually go away unless the person receives treatments designed specifically to help people with panic disorder.

So, if you or someone you know has symptoms like those described in this article, it is important to see a health care professional for a correct diagnosis and proper treatment.

What causes panic disorder?

According to one theory of panic disorder, the body's normal "alarm system" tends to be triggered unnecessarily. Scientists don't know exactly why this happens. Panic disorder has been found to run in families, and this may mean that inheritance (genes) plays a strong role in determining who will get it. However, many people who have no family history of the disorder develop it. Often the first attacks are triggered by physical illnesses, a major life stress, or certain medications.

Panic disorder is characterized by un-expected and repeated episodes of intense fear accompanied by physical symptoms that may include chest pain, heart palpitations, shortness of breath, dizziness or abdominal distress. These sensations often mimic symptoms of a heart attack or other life-threatening medical conditions. As a result, the diagnosis of panic disorder is frequently not made until extensive and costly medical procedures fail to provide a correct diagnosis or relief.

Many people with panic disorder develop intense anxiety between episodes. It is not unusual for a person with panic disorder to develop phobias about places or situations where panic attacks have occurred, such as in supermarkets or other everyday situations. As the frequency of panic attacks increases, the person often begins to avoid situations where they fear another attack may occur or where help would not be immediately available. This avoidance may eventually develop into agoraphobia, an inability to go beyond known and safe surroundings because of intense fear and anxiety.

Fortunately, through research supported by the U.S. National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) and by industry, effective treatments have been developed to help people with panic disorder.

How Common Is Panic Disorder?

What Causes Panic Disorder?

Heredity, other biological factors, stressful life events, and thinking in a way that exaggerates relatively normal bodily reactions are all believed to play a role in the onset of panic disorder. The exact cause or causes of panic disorder are unknown and are the subject of intense scientific investigation.

Studies in animals and humans have focused on pinpointing the specific brain areas and circuits involved in anxiety and fear, which underlie anxiety disorders such as panic disorder. Fear, an emotion that evolved to deal with danger, causes an automatic, rapid protective response that occurs without the need for conscious thought. It has been found that the body's fear response is coordinated by a small structure deep inside the brain, called the amygdala.

The amygdala, although relatively small, is a very complicated structure, and recent research suggests that anxiety disorders may be associated with abnormal activitation in the amygdala. One aim of research is to use such basic scientific knowledge to develop new therapies.

What Treatments Are Available for Panic Disorder?

Treatment for panic disorder includes medications and a type of psychotherapy known as cognitive-behavioral therapy, which teaches people how to view panic attacks differently and demonstrates ways to reduce anxiety. NIMH is conducting a large-scale study to evaluate the effectiveness of combining these treatments. Appropriate treatment by an experienced professional can reduce or prevent panic attacks in 70% to 90% of people with panic disorder. Most patients show significant progress after a few weeks of therapy. Relapses may occur, but they can often be effectively treated just like the initial episode.

Can People With Panic Disorder Also Have Other Illnesses?

Research shows that panic disorder can coexist with other disorders, most often depression and substance abuse. About 30% of people with panic disorder abuse alcohol and 17% abuse drugs, such as cocaine and marijuana, in unsuccessful attempts to alleviate the anguish and distress caused by their condition. Appropriate diagnosis and treatment of other disorders such as substance abuse or depression are important to successfully treat panic disorder.

Panic Attacks and Panic Disorder

A panic attack is a discrete period of intense fear or discomfort that is associated with numerous somatic and cognitive symptoms (DSM-IV). These symptoms include palpitations, sweating, trembling, shortness of breath, sensations of choking or smothering, chest pain, nausea or gastrointestinal distress, dizziness or lightheadedness, tingling sensations, and chills or blushing and “hot flashes.” The attack typically has an abrupt onset, building to maximum intensity within 10 to 15 minutes. Most people report a fear of dying, “going crazy,” or losing control of emotions or behavior. The experiences generally provoke a strong urge to escape or flee the place where the attack begins and, when associated with chest pain or shortness of breath, frequently results in seeking aid from a hospital emergency room or other type of urgent assistance. Yet an attack rarely lasts longer than 30 minutes. Current diagnostic practice specifies that a panic attack must be characterized by at least four of the associated somatic and cognitive symptoms described above. The panic attack is distinguished from other forms of anxiety by its intensity and its sudden, episodic nature. Panic attacks may be further characterized by the relationship between the onset of the attack and the presence or absence of situational factors. For example, a panic attack may be described as unexpected, situationally bound, or situationally predisposed (usually, but not invariably occurring in a particular situation). There are also attenuated or “limited symptom” forms of panic attacks.

Panic attacks are not always indicative of a mental disorder, and up to 10 percent of otherwise healthy people experience an isolated panic attack per year (Barlow, 1988; Klerman et al., 1991). Panic attacks also are not limited to panic disorder. They commonly occur in the course of social phobia, generalized anxiety disorder, and major depressive disorder (DSM-IV).

Panic disorder is diagnosed when a person has experienced at least two unexpected panic attacks and develops persistent concern or worry about having further attacks or changes his or her behavior to avoid or minimize such attacks. Whereas the number and severity of the attacks varies widely, the concern and avoidance behavior are essential features. The diagnosis is inapplicable when the attacks are presumed to be caused by a drug or medication or a general medical disorder, such as hyperthyroidism.

Lifetime rates of panic disorder of 2 to 4 percent and 1-year rates of about 2 percent are documented consistently in epidemiological studies (Kessler et al., 1994; Weissman et al., 1997) (Table 4-1). Panic disorder is frequently complicated by major depressive disorder (50 to 65 percent lifetime comorbidity rates) and alcoholism and substance abuse disorders (20 to 30 percent comorbidity) (Keller & Hanks, 1994; Magee et al., 1996; Liebowitz, 1997). Panic disorder is also concomitantly diagnosed, or co-occurs, with other specific anxiety disorders, including social phobia (up to 30 percent), generalized anxiety disorder (up to 25 percent), specific phobia (up to 20 percent), and obsessive-compulsive disorder (up to 10 percent) (DSM-IV). As discussed subsequently, approximately one-half of people with panic disorder at some point develop such severe avoidance as to warrant a separate description, panic disorder with agoraphobia.

Panic disorder is about twice as common among women as men (American Psychiatric Association, 1998). Age of onset is most common between late adolescence and midadult life, with onset relatively uncommon past age 50. There is developmental continuity between the anxiety syndromes of youth, such as separation anxiety disorder. Typically, an early age of onset of panic disorder carries greater risks of comorbidity, chronicity, and impairment. Panic disorder is a familial condition and can be distinguished from depressive disorders by family studies (Rush et al., 1998).

External links

Junior is actually Tony Soprano's uncle: Junior's younger brother was Giovanni "Johnny Boy" Soprano, Tony's father. Both Junior and Johnny Boy dropped out of high school to join the DiMeo crime family. Junior always watched after Tony, but after Johnny Boy's death from lung cancer, Junior became Tony's surrogate father. Junior acted as Tony's leader and mentor, helping him rise through the ranks.

Upon the death of Jackie Aprile, Junior became boss of the family, but Tony had to eventually step in to take over to quell dissension over Junior taking charge. Junior technically retains authority over the family, but poor health coupled with being under house arrest for federal racketeering charges have limited Junior's ability to run anything. Resentful, Tony's own mother, Livia, tried to take advantage of both of their grudges and have Junior rub out Tony. However, the hit failed and Tony used the situation to cut Junior out of the loop in the family almost completely. The two seem to have since buried the hatchet.

Silvio operates the Bada Bing, the most recent in a string of strip clubs that he has operated, which is also one of the family's major meeting spots. Silvio is also one of the more level-headed associates of Tony Soprano. Where many of Tony's men immediately become hot-headed and resort to violence, Silvio generally helps to mediate many situations. Because of this, Tony relies on Silvio to be a clear-headed thinker, someone he can trust (thus his status as consigliere). Silvio is also a strong father for his teenage daughter, Heather, whom, along with his wife, Gabriella, he loves more than anything.

Christopher is Tony's nephew and prodigy in their organization who recently became a "made man." Tony has looked out for Christopher over the years as he never had a father figure growing up. Christopher now acts as Tony's lieutenant, issuing orders from Tony in order to protect Tony from potential racketeering charges.

However, Christopher has his share of problems. He is often violent and impulsive, frequently creating messes that he must extricate himself from. He also had problems with his usage of heroin, eventually being forced into rehab by Tony, his friends and his long-time girlfriend (and now fiancée), Adriana La Cerva.

Christopher also once tried his hand at screenwriting, but was eventually reined back in by Tony.

Stereotype

Originally a stereotype was an impression taken from a form of movable lead type and used for printing instead of the original type. This was generalized into a metaphor for repeating a set of ideas identically with no changes (as would have been possible in a form of movable type).

In modern usage, the metaphorical meaning predominates. The term is generally used to describe an oversimplified mental picture of some group of people who are sharing a certain characteristic (or stereotypical) qualities. The term is thus often used in a negative sense, with stereotypes being seen by many as illogical yet deeply held-beliefs that can only be changed through education.

Common stereotypes of the past included a variety of allegations about various racial groups (see: racial stereotype and racial profiling) and predictions of behavior based on social status and wealth (See social stereotype).

In literature and art, stereotypes are clichéd or predictable characters or situations. For example, the stereotypical devil is a red, impish character with horns and a pitchfork.

Common stereotypical characters

Gender role

(Redirected from Effeminate)

A person's gender role is made up of all of the things a person does to express their gender identity. It then becomes the set of signals by which others infer that person's gender identity. For instance, if someone identifies themselves as a girl or woman, then they will ordinarily do the kind of things that will let other people know that they are a girl or woman. And, if someone identifies themselves as a boy or man then they will ordinarily do the kind of things that will let other people know that they are a boy or man. A man who wants to attract girlfriends would rarely if ever use his clothing, behavior, etc., to present himself in the guise of a woman. Similarly, a woman would ordinary be ill-advised to seek a man by presenting herself in the guise of a man. In most cases, when a man appears in the guise of a woman, or a woman appears in the guise of a man, then most people will agree that they are disguising themselves, that is, that they are engaged in deliberately deceptive behavior. (Because many societies impose expectations on the behavior of the members of society, and the expectations are linked to the gender identities of those individuals, there are prescriptions regarding gender roles, i.e., expectations that men and women will hold different kinds of positions in society. Failure to comply with these expectations can produce a wide range of sanctions.) It should be noted that some societies are comparatively rigid in their expectations, and other societies are comparatively permissive. Some of the gender signals that form part of a gender role and indicate one's gender identity to others are quite obvious, and others are so subtle that they are transmitted and received out of ordinary conscious awareness.

Some elements of gender role are connected with body differences related to sex. For instance, women's blouses make room for women's breasts and do not have pockets that cover the nipples. Men's shirts, essentially the same garment, are flatter and do have pockets over the nipples. Men frequently find it convenient to urinate while standing, but women rarely do. Women frequently nurse infants. Men have mammary glands but they only very rarely nurse infants because the special hormonal states that produce lactation usually follow only from pregnancy. See male_lactation

Another set of gender roles are related to body differences related to sex, but the body differences are things like height and muscular strength for which there is a substantial overlap of the abilities of men and women. Some women are stronger than some men. Some women are larger and/or taller than some men. But if you average the heights of all men and the heights of all women, they won't be equal. If you are looking for the world champion weight lifter, it is unlikely that it will be a woman.

In many societies, there is a strong tendency to exaggerate gender role differences. Starting with the belief that men are generally stronger than women, people conclude, somehow, that men should be stronger than women, and that there is something inadequate about a man who is not very strong. Starting with the belief that women are generally more gentle and nurturing than men, people construct a socially supported ideal that says that women should be gentle and nurturing and should not be harsh or aggressive. Many societies jump from the observation that men are less likely to cry than are women to the practice of indoctrinating boys, virtually from birth, not to cry.

Some gender role differences are purely conventional. That is, they work the way laws about which side of the street to drive on work. As long as everyone in Great Britain drives on the left side of the road, and as long as everyone in the United States drives on the right side of the road, there will be no problem with head-on collisions. In most societies, men wear trousers and women wear skirts. But in a traditional Malay community it is an ordinary practice for men to wear sarongs. In the traditional society of Scotland, men wore kilts. As long as the cultural context matches the choice of clothing it would be unusual for any negative comment to arise in such cases.

Gender role differences that are purely conventional are easier to change than are those that have some link to the biology of individuals. One consequence of social unrest during the Vietnam War era in the United States, Great Britain, and many other countries, was that men began to let their hair grow to a length that was previously considered appropriate only to women. Somewhat later, in response to other social changes, many women began to cut their hair to lengths previously considered appropriate only to men. The practical consequences of these changes were not onerous.

It would, to the contrary, be rather more difficult to get men to give up trousers that have a zipper that facilitates urinating while standing. It would likewise be difficult to get women to wear tight-fitting fly fishermen's vests made of nylon netting with a half-inch mesh. Such a garment, regardless of how stylish it might be considered one fine year, would be too uncomfortable for a woman to wear unless she first bound her breasts with some other fabric to protect them from rubbing against the harsh netting and pocket contents of the vest.

Biological factors sometimes have a strong impact on which occupations are judged by a society to be appropriate for men, and which are judged appropriate for women. There is no reason why a large woman could not successfully shoe horses or deliver freight shipments from railway stations to the recipients' homes. However, there are not even very many men who have the strength and stamina to put shoes on an uncooperative Clydesdale draft horse. Societies seem to frequently jump from a valid observation to a false conclusion in cases such as these. A society may jump from the observation that only a very few women would be physically suited to shoe a heavy draft horse to the conclusion that no woman should be a farrier, or jump from the observation that only a few women would be physically suited to serve as a fireman to the conclusion that women should not be eligible to apply for those jobs.

In many other cases, the elements of convention or tradition seem to play a dominant role in deciding which occupations fit in with which gender roles. In the United States, physicians have traditionally been men, and the few people who defied that expectation received a special job description: "woman doctor." Similarly, we have special terms like "male nurse," "woman lawyer," "lady barber," etc. But in China and the former Soviet Union countries, medical doctors are predominantly women, and in Taiwan it is very common for all of the barbers in a barber shop to be women.

As long as a person's external genitals are consistent with that person's gender identity the gender role of a person is so much a matter of course in a stable society that people rarely even think of it unless for whatever reason an individual adopts a gender role that is inconsistent with his or her gender identity. When that kind of thing happens, it is most often done to deliberately provoke a sense of incongruity and a humorous reaction to the attempts of a person of one sex trying to pass himself or herself off as a member of another sex. People can find much entertainment in observing the exaggerations or the failures to get nuances of an unfamiliar gender role right.

It is not so entertaining, however, when the external genitalia of a person, that person's gender identity, and/or that person's gender role are not consistent. People naturally, but too easily, assume that if a person has a penis, scrotum, etc., then that person is chromosomally male (i.e., that person has one X chromosome and one Y chromosome), and that the person, in introspection, feels like a male. Mother nature is much more inventive than is our language and system of traditional concepts. The person may have a penis and scrotum, but may be a female (with XX chromosomal sexual identity) with normal female sexual organs internally. When that person reaches puberty, "his" breasts may enlarge to ordinary female proportions, and "he" may begin to menstruate, passing menstrual blood through "his" penis. In addition, this person may have always accepted a gender identity that is consistent with "his" external genitalia or with "her" internal genitalia.

Just as there are individuals whose external genitalia make them falsely appear to be male, there are also individuals whose external genitalia make them falsely appear to be females. There are individuals whose genitalia are intermediate in appearance between those of an ordinary male and those of an ordinary female. An examination of their chromosomal sex and/or other tests may be necessary to determine what these people really are. And there are even individuals who have both male and female sexual organs in the same body.

When we consider these more unusual products of Mother Nature's inventiveness, the simple picture that we saw in which there was a high degree of consistency among external genitalia, gender identity, and gender role then dissolves into a kind of jigsaw puzzle that is difficult to put together correctly. The extra parts of this jigsaw puzzle fall into two closely related categories, atypical gender identities and atypical gender roles.

Such incidents are rare. For the vast majority of people their gender is commensurate with their genitalia.

Language is a system of abstractions and frequently deals with idealized cases. The more sharply masculine gender roles are distinguished from feminine gender roles, the less likely it is that any individual human being will comply perfectly with the requirements of that gender role. And besides that fact, every individual in a society is likely to have his or her unique definition of the "proper masculine gender role" and the "proper feminine gender role." Any individual, then, might well be expected to be in compliance with the gender role ideals held by some people and to fail to be in compliance with the gender role ideals held by some other people. When, for instance, a boy cries too readily for the tastes of some people, they will call the child a "sissy" to indicate that in their view he is not a very ideal boy. There are many such pejorative role-related terms .

Sociologists and sexologists use the term gender roles to name the behaviors and responsibilities prescribed for each gender by a society.

Table of contents [showhide]

1 Culturally dependent views of gender roles

2 Biologically dependent aspects of gender roles

3 Another nature versus nurture debate

4 Examples of western gender roles

5 See also

5.1 External Links

Culturally dependent views of gender roles

Ideas of appropriate behavior according to gender vary among cultures, although some aspects receive more widespread attention than others. For example, in most current and known historical cultures, martial combat has been seen as mostly (or only) appropriate for men, while child-rearing has been seen as mostly (or only) the domain of women.

Other aspects, however, may differ markedly with time and place. In pre-industrial Europe, for example, the practice of medicine (other than midwifery) was generally seen as a male prerogative. However, in Russia health care was more often seen as a feminine role. The results of these views can be seen in modern society, where European medicine is most often practiced by men, while the majority of Russian doctors are women.

Biologically dependent aspects of gender roles

In most times and places male human beings frequently urinate while standing, and female human beings rarely urinate while standing. Similarly, female human beings are normally the only ones to experience gestation.

Another nature versus nurture debate

Considerable debate exists as to whether gender roles are biologically mandated, in the sense of the behavioral traits arising primarily from the biology of sex; or culturally mandated, in the sense of behavioral traits arising from early socialization. As with many such debates, most researchers believe that both factors influence the development and propagation of gender roles. However, the relative influence of each, and the specifics of how that influence operates, are still hotly disputed.

Examples of western gender roles

In the early 20th century, western gender roles were based around the idea of heteronormativity, and as such they were comparatively fixed. People who transgressed gender roles, such as women with high-powered jobs, frequently experienced often violent disapproval and discrimination.

Some examples of commonly seen gender role descriptions:

A man enjoys sex, has a career, and has difficulty expressing his emotions.
A woman wears cosmetics, and wants to get married, start a family and be a housewife.
An effeminate man, is a man who is more or less like a stereotypical woman.
A girl wears skirts and dresses, plays with dolls, likes the colour pink, has long hair, and wants to wear make-up.
A tomboy is a girl who behaves like a stereotypical boy.
A boy wears rugged clothing, likes the colour blue, plays with toy soldiers, participates in competitive team sports, enjoys fighting, doesn't cry, and has short hair.
A sissy is a boy who behaves like a stereotypical girl.

After the sexual revolution, gay liberation, and feminism movements of the mid to late 20th century (the 1960s in particular), new roles became available in Western societies, and gender roles became rather more flexible. Narrowly defined gender roles, such as those listed here, are generally recognised as stereotypes.

Other stereotypes:

Man
- Head and breadwinner of the family
- Responsible for contacts outward
- Strong, rational, sexually active
- Men as "hunters"

Woman
- Dependent on and subject to a male commander (father, husband etc..)
- Responsible for the social connections within the family
- Weak, emotional and irrational, compensatorily sexually passive or uninterested
- Woman "nests"

Carmine is the ultimate leader of the crime families in the New York area. He's highly intelligent and an opportunist, even in his old age. He had an ongoing rivalry of sorts with his underboss, Johnny Sack, who once tried to work with Tony Soprano to have him killed and, conversely, Carmine almost put a hit out on Johnny Sack.

In recent years, however, Carmine's health began to fail and he suffered a stroke. After some time in the hospital in a coma, Lupertazzi died, leaving a power vacuum in the New York crime family. The heir apparent for his position would be his son, Carmine Lupertazzi, Jr., a fact that is a point of consternation for Johnny Sack, who also seeks the position Carmine left behind.

Livia Soprano, the family matriarch was scheming, manipulative, canniving and abusive. She derived little pleasure from life other than seemingly making the people around her miserable, especially her two children, Tony and Janice. Nothing was sacred with Livia. She even tried to manipulate Uncle Junior into putting out a hit on her own son after he tried to put her in a nursing home.

Hesh is an important advisor to Tony Soprano, but, by virtue of being Jewish, is not and cannot be a made man. Nevertheless, Tony frequently seeks out Hesh's advice on a number of issues.

Hesh is a very intelligent man and a superb businessman, making a fortune in the recording industry during the 1950s and 1960s by bringing many young black musicians to prominence. Hesh also keeps a stable of horses.

Richie Aprile, brother of Jackie Aprile, was an up-and-coming member of the DiMeo crime family before being sent to prison for ten years. He came back to a very different family, however, with Tony Soprano in charge. Tony and Richie had no love for each other at all (dating back to childhood) and this was exacerbated by Richie's inability to submit to anyone's will. A power struggle began and Richie was preparing to move on Tony, but Tony was tipped off by his uncle Junior.

For a while, Richie and Janice Soprano, Tony's brother, were dating in high school. When Richie got out of prison, he and Janice began to resume their old relationship and were actually preparing to get married. However, Richie was abusive to Janice and after one fight where Richie punched Janice, Janice shot him twice, killing him. Tony then buried Richie's body and sent Janice off to Seattle to lay low.

Johnny Sack is a smart captain in the New York family underneath Carmine Lupertazzi and is a friend and compatriot of Tony Soprano's. Although the New York and New Jersey families are technically rivals, relations between the two families have been peaceful for some time. Johnny Sack works to try and maintain the peace with the other families, insisting that peace between the families means prosperity for all the families.

But while Johnny Sack usually maintains his cool, he is very sensitive about his wife, Ginny, who has a problem with obesity. Johnny becomes violently angry when any remarks are made about Ginny's weight problem. He once ordered a hit put on Ralph Cifaretto for making one such off-color joke, although he was talked down from the action.

Furio was originally from Italy and the only one on Tony's crew who was. Tony requested of Italian boss Zio Vittorio that Furio come to New Jersey to work for him and Furio became one of Tony's collection agents.

Furio eventually began to fall in love with Tony's wife, Carmela, who also saw him as a dashing, respectful man: Tony's polar opposite, but the two never truly became romantically-entwined. For a time, however, there was significant tension between the two. On the advice of Furio's uncle and faced with the possibility of being killed by a vengeful Tony, Furio packed up, moved back to Italy and disappeared. Tony apparently still has men looking for him, but no one has found him since.

Ralph Cifaretto was an obnoxious, sarcastic and confrontational member of Tony Soprano's crew. A very tempermental man with drug and sexual issues, he once killed an exotic dancer carrying his child and became flippant about it with Tony, which led to Tony striking Ralph, something that one made man is not supposed to do to another. By way of apology, Tony promoted Ralph to captain, something for which he had aspired for quite some time.

Ralph briefly pursued relationships with Rosalie Aprile, the widow of the late Jackie Aprile and then Janice Soprano, although neither relationship amounted to anything.

Ralph also purchased a race horse named "Pie-O-My" and worked with Tony to turn her into a winning race horse. However, Ralph needed some money to help his son who was injured, and Pie-O-My died in a suspicious stable fire. A very angry Tony confronted Ralph about it. A confrontation ensued and Tony ended up killing Ralph. Tony, with the help of Christopher then dismembered and buried the body.

Patsy Parisi works directly under Paulie Walnuts, performing various enforcement tasks for the family. Patsy had an identical twin brother, Phil "Philly Spoons" Parisi (whom Dan Grimaldi also played), who had a hit taken out on him by Tony. Patsy took it very hard, drinking heavily and considering killing Tony. However, he eventually put his grief behind him.

Patsy still has questionable loyalties, however. When Paulie was in prison, Tony promoted Chris to interim captain over Patsy (who had seniority). Patsy didn't take that real well, eventually getting into a fight with Christopher, although the two have apparently put aside their differences for now.

Bobby is much different from the other men in Tony Soprano's crew. Bobby is quiet, almost shy, sweet and even-tempered. He is a big guy, which brings him much ridicule, but he is very loyal and even Tony apologizes after making cracks about his weight. Bobby operates Junior Soprano's loan shark business in his stead and also acts as Junior's assistant while he is under house arrest for federal racketeering charges.

Bobby was very loyal to his wife, Karen, and was the only made man without a "goomar," a girl on the side. However, Bobby lost his wife in a car accident and took it especially hard. Following Karen's death, Janice Soprano has been actively pursuing Bobby, trying to help him out as much as possible (with cooking and watching over Bobby's two children) but also to trying to initiate a relationship with him.

Janice is Tony's complete opposite. After graduating high school, Janice wandered about, joining an ashram in Los Angeles, changing her name to "Parvati Wasatch," traveling across Europe, marrying a French Canadian, working at an espresso bar in Seattle (and claiming disability from operating the steamed milk machine) before finally moving back to New Jersey.

While in New Jersey, she became engaged to her old flame, Richie Aprile. However, he was violent towards her and eventually Janice shot and killed Richie. After a time back in Seattle, Janice again returned to New Jersey, hooking up first with Ralph Cifaretto and now trying to hook up with widower Bobby Baccilieri.

Adriana seems like a shallow and worldly person, interested in the things that Christopher's money can buy: expensive cars, jewelry, designer clothing and furs. However, Adriana also acts intelligently at times and always seems to seek what's best for Christopher. Nonetheless, Adriana is also career-oriented and is currently set up as the manager of the Crazy Horse club in Long Branch, a position that Christopher installed her in.

However, the FBI has also been targeting Adriana as a potential weakness in the family's organization. Upon the death of Sal "Big Pussy" Bonpensiero, the FBI looked to Adriana as a close relation to a rising star in the crime family and sent Special Agent Deborah Ciccerone to a mall to befriend Adriana. The tactic actually backfired, but the FBI were still able to get enough on Adriana's heroin problem to use as leverage. So far, Adriana has not given up any serious information on the family and is doing her best to avoid the Soprano family house in order to have nothing to give back to the Feds.

Paulie grew up as a bad street kid. He spent time in and out of juvenile correctional facilities until he became an enforcer for Johnny Boy Soprano, Tony's father. He spent some brief time in the Army where he was eventually drummed out through Section 8 (discharge because of psychiatric reasons). Afterwards, he spent time in and out of prison. Eventually, he worked his way up through the DiMeo crime family, reaching captain under Tony.

Paulie has an extremely violent temperament and is very quick to fly off the handle for anything. He's also incredibly paranoid and constantly trying to "play the field." During a brief time in jail, he communicated with Johnny Sack, an underboss of the New York family, trying to switch allegiances, right under Tony's nose.

The only person Paulie has a true love for is his mother, whom he watches over constantly.

Christopher also once tried his hand at screenwriting, but was eventually reined back in by Tony.

Meadow is the first-born child of Tony and Carmela and is a very smart, attractive and spirited college student attending Columbia University. She does well in her classes and volunteers regularly at the South Bronx Law Center, helping to provide legal assistance to people.

On the other hand, Meadow is often resentful of her lineage, stemming from a string of failed relationships, first with a fellow student of mixed race, whom her parents strongly disapproved of and then Jackie Aprile, Jr., the son of Tony's deceased friend, Jackie Aprile, who died when a hit was put out on him. However, Jackie Junior was no saint, first by cheating on Meadow and then by shooting a made man during a botched robbery, which is why the hit was put on him in the first place. But that didn't stop Meadow from being distressed over his death, ultimately blaming Tony for being involved with the mob at all and Carmela for standing by and supporting him.

Meadow has a decent relationship with her brother, A.J., however. She loves him and although she mostly considers him a screw-up, she always tries to help him out when she can.

Despite being the son and namesake of Tony Soprano, A.J. is really just a constant source of teenage grief for him and Carmela. He is a very poor student, crashed Carmela's car, was caught smoking marijuana at his own confirmation, stole communion wine and got drunk off of it and was almost sent to military school, until it was discovered that A.J. suffers from the same panic attacks that plagued his father and grandfather.

Unfortunately, Tony and Carmela simply can't figure out what to do with A.J. Tony has no desire to groom him into a position within his organization and his lousy schooling leaves him very little in the way of potential post-high-school opportunities. This coupled with his borderline ADD and his parents' separation has further exacerbated A.J.'s near-constant rebellion.

Dr. Melfi is probably the closest person to truly understanding Tony Soprano. Over the years, Tony has been able to confide in Dr. Melfi many things that he has told no one else, not his associates and certainly not his wife, Carmela. However, Dr. Melfi and Tony have an unusual, off-again-on-again relationship. Tony inwardly fears the prying into his life that Dr. Melfi does during their sessions, but he also fears the results from not dealing with the problem. As a result, she watches Tony go through frequent mood swings during their time together, sometimes acting playful, other times violent; sometimes acting responsive, other times being cold and distant.

For her part, Dr. Melfi has tried hard to help Tony as much as possible, half chalking it up to some sort of visceral thrill of helping a gangster but also trying to resist the idea that she has romantic thoughts about the man and keep their relationship professional. However, while she has so far resisted Tony's constant advances, which Dr. Melfi is both attracted to and repelled by at the same time, Tony no longer wishes for their relationship to remain strictly professional. Tony seems to see Dr. Melfi as the one object that he is unable to truly have and, while continuing to pursue her, also resents her for it.

Some time ago, Dr. Melfi was also brutally raped in a parking garage and after the rapist was freed on a technicality, she has had to resist the very strong desire to have Tony rub the attacker out. To deal with this, Dr. Melfi also sees a psychiatrist of her own as well, Dr. Elliot Kupferberg.

The Sopranos

Stereotype

Gender role

Another nature versus nurture debate

Butch and Femme